Indian Civilization

Indian CIVILIZATION Also c alled Indus Valley Civilization the earliest in South Asia Contemporary with Bronze grow civilizations in pre-dynastic Egypt, Mesopotamia Comp ared to the early(a) Bronze Age civilizations, Indus Valley Civilization was unspectacular Early civilizations of the Indian sub-continent were centred on two major river valleys The Indus River and its tri merelyaries, especially the Saraswati River Valley (2600-1500BCE) associated with Dravidians.Called Harappan Culture The Ganges River Valley (1500-500BCE) associated with the Indo-Europeans. Called the Vedic Age. Along the Indus & Saraswati, at that place were two major centres of this civilization Mohenjodaro and Harappa hence Harappan Culture Other cities of this civilization include Kalibagan, Chanhudaro & Doraji in Gujerat Origins and emergenceThis civilization appears as fully developed & distinctive culture little is known intimately the cultures that came in the beginning it or the factors that led t o its development Recent research indicates that antecedents of this civilization can be found at Mehrgarh on the horse opera edge of the Indus plains Evidence that domestication of plants & animals, pottery production and village carriage began here Around 3200 2600 BCE, several pre-urban cultures existed in Indus Plains and the western hill valleys that show aspects of the Harappan culture HARAPPAN CULTURE CHARACTERISTICSBuilt on irrigation-based agriculture. Irrigation based on dikes and drains. Barley and wheat the most important crops grains stored in granaries in Harappa and Mohenjodaro (as a underframe of tax? ) Domesticated animals cattle, water system buffalo, goats, pigs, donkeys Trade was very important extensive quite a little connections with areas around the Arabian Sea & up the Persian Gulf to Mesoptamia Fortified cities well-planned with straight streets intersecting at right angles a system of underground drains and sewers Buildings made of baked bricks.At Moh enjodaro, multi-roomed houses cede been recorded Thickness of walls and remains of staircases presage to the existence of upper floors Skilled artisans including bead makers, metal workers, cotton weavers and potters Potters made painted pots decorated with nimal figures, water jars, cooking & drinking vessels & storage vessels Metal workers produced copper and bronze vessels, silver and gold ornaments Other artisans produced the solid and rectangular seals from steatite & other soft rocks Seals had an animal carved in negative relief and a line of script that could be read when the seal was stamped on wet tablet Seals were used to certify messages. The script on the seals revealed the name, lineage, amicable identity or the public office held by seal-owner Seals could besides befuddle been worn as talismans or amuletsThey are the only(prenominal) examples of writing from this period 400 pictographs/characters have been place so far, but the script is not fully deciphered R ELIGION Little is known about the early theologys of the Indus River Valley in these early times However, more elements of Indias religious heritage nowadays are evident from some seals from Harappa and Mohenjodaro. A seal from Mohenjodaro has a homophile-like figure with three heads wearing a headdress and sitting in the Yoga position. He is surrounded by animals elephants, rhinos, water buffalo, deer etc. aspect to be a Prototype of the popular Hindu god, Shiva (the Lord of Beasts) Seal impressions and clay figurines from Harappa generate a female deity with conspicous sexual organs = thought to re fork up the goddess of fertility FALL & autumn Harappan Culture declined and fell around 1500 BCE Harappa, Mohenjodaro and other cities were aband mavind and their populations dispersed into smaller settlements in that respect was a mouse of achievements writing was forgotten and much of northern India re turned to village lifeREASONS FOR DECLINE/FALL 1. Possible inundate along the Indus, affecting the densely populated areas and cities 2. Shifts in patterns of long distance trade with Mesopotamia and other regions 3. Changes in subsistence farming rice cultivation was introduced along the Ganges Basin and had taken cool off by 1500BCE millet was introduced in Gujerat. So new environments were opened for farming where conditions were unsuitable for wheat and barley 4.Major geological disturbances unspoiled the source of Saraswati river, causing it to dry up, catastrophically disrupting agriculture downstream. 5. Invasion by the Aryans (Arya = noble) who came from the northern steppes of Europe REASONS FOR THE winner OF THE ARYANS A highly developed spoken language that tended to displace other tongues that it encountered Better military conditionation horse-drawn war chariots and weapons made from iron which was superior to bronze GANGES RIVER VALLEY CIVILIZATIONSAryans became sedentary landowners along the Ganges others became traders on the river Cr afts became more specialized & increased in complexity produced iron ploughs, luxury items for trade Urban centres re-emerged with substantial populations of artisans, traders, resident landowners, priests, warriors Major metropolises along the Ganges include Patna, Benares (which is still a hallowed city for Hindus even today) SOCIAL ORGANIZATION Early Indian societies were matriarchal (i. e. headed by women) and matrilineal (inheritance was done with(predicate) the female side of the family).This changed with the overture of the Aryans who were patriarchal Before the Aryans, husbands lived with the wifes family the wifes family compensable dowry. After Aryans, wifes were required to move to the husbands family, bring substantial dowries and experience husbands authority The coterie system was introduced at this time. Basis for caste division was social and economic rather than racial Originally there were four castes 1. Sudras = cultivators of land, manual labourers, domes tic servants 2. Vaisyas = landowners, artisans, herdsmen, merchants . Kshatriyas = the warrior nobility 4. Brahmans = priests, scholars The caste system became a dominant factor in shaping Indian society Economic specialty & division of labour played a role in the evolution of the caste e. g. Brahmans engage freely in other occupation, parrying those considered to be polluting The hierarchy embodied in the caste system also applies to the cosmic order the ranking order of the caste (from pure to impure) corresponded to the ascending order of the divinities as well policy-making ORGANIZATION Not much is known about the political organization in India in the lead the coming of the Aryans However, we know that Harappans had adopted the city as a means of organizing & controlling their civilization Up to fin major Harappan cities are known Harappa after which the civilization is named Mohenjodaro, Kalibagan, Chanhudaro & Doraji Aryans were loosely organized into families, clans and tribes.Tribes were headed by points/kings called Rajas, most of whom were choose or chosen by rotation from the leading families Rajas shared political power with councils of elders & assemblies of adult males There were two forms of states in India Republics and Kingdoms In the Republics, rajas continued to rule in conjunction with respectable councils and the assemblies while in the Kingdoms, the power of the rajas grew at the expense of the councils & the assemblies.Most often, power became hereditary Monarchies developed administrative systems headed by chief priests and military leaders Close alliance between kings & priests Brahmans were involved in the consecration of new kings the kings supported the rising Hindu priesthoods RELIGION Again, little is known about early religion in Harappan India. However, we know that religion in early India was a form of polytheism People of Harappan culture worshipped a goddess whose clay figurines have been recovered in Harappa & Mohen jodaro Aryans introduced new gods includingIndra = the god of war Agni = The spirit of the sacrificial fire Varuna = the lord of the prodigious sky Aryans sacrificed to these divinities by slaughtering dozens, even hundreds of animals & sometimes humans too Sacrifices were accompanied by hymns, prayers & rituals. The hymns were passed on through generations to become core of the Hindu scriptures, the vedas HINDUISMHinduism emerged from the merging of the gods of the Aryans and those of the conquered Dravidians Early Hindus saw some of their gods in the shape of animals (anthropomorphic divinities) much(prenominal) as snakes, the sacred cow etc However, Hinduism did evolve to engage in philosophic search for the deepest spiritual convention of the universe The most important gods of the Hindu faith are Brahma = the creator god also called the Absolute existence or the instauration/Universal Soul Vishnu = the preserver of the universeShiva = the bound divinity with four arms an d the destroyer of all things also the Lord of Beasts The concept of Brahma later on subsumed all the three gods (Brahma, Vishnu & Shiva). Brahma personified the concept of a deity that could be worshipped Brahman (as the claim for the priestly class) is a derivative of the same word Brahman can also be draw as the universal principle that underlies all that exists, the spiritual essence permeating the entire cosmos & the one hidden in all things hence reincarnation THE VEDASToday, Hinduism is based on the vedas, the sacred books of the Hindu religion. Vedas are believed to have been divinely inspired. There are four vedas 1. Yajurveda a manual of sacrifice for the officiating priest 2. Atharvaveda a catalogue of charms & spells supposed to be effective in curing illnesses, arousing passion in the determination of ones desire or in destroying ones enemies 3. Rig Veda (means verses of wisdom or knowledge) a compilation of more than 1000 poems composed between 1500-900 BCE, addres sed to various Aryan gods.For example one of the poems is dedicated to Indra who is described as the god of thunder who pierced the bellies of the mountains to release water (possibly referring to annual floods caused by the melting of snow in the Himalayas). Another poem appeals for protection of goddess Night whose refulgency was believed to drive away darkness Another poem is by a gambler lamenting an hexed throw of the dice which has caused his wife to repel him and his mother-in-law to hate him. 4.Upanishads (meaning sitting down near) These are philosophical treatises in prose and verse. They are cast in the form of dialogues between teacher and student They examine the spirit of reality and the problem of mans place in the universe. They reveal a genius for abstract reasoning still admired today. Upanishads teach that evil is the fruit of ignorance that the pursuit of wisdom is pursuit of the highest likely good and that attainment of wisdom bestows both power and virtu e Main TeachingsThe Absolute organism/ terra firma Soul is the only supreme reality Material human is an illusion (or maya) it is not permanent That case-by-case souls go through a cycle of rebirth the soul seeks to reach nivarna (spiritual liberation) That the soul can hunt down the cycle of rebirth by union with the Absolute Being. The individual soul (atman) is actually a subdivision of Brahman, the Universal Soul. OTHER ASPECTS OF HINDUISMThe concept of brotherhood of all animated things embodied in the concepts of reincarnation and transmigration of souls, karma and ahimsa The Hindu faith holds that each human soul is re natural/reincarnated in the body of some other peter human, animal, plant or even supernatural being over & over again The precise form one takes on reincarnation depends on karma or the actions one takes in the present life best and pious life you may be reborn as a Brahman or other high caste a life of self-indulgence & sin you may live your next li fe as a worm, dog or something else Members of lowly castes were encouraged to diligently do their duties to be born to higher status Dharma (faithful performance of ones assigned role) and Karma (merits and demerits earned as a get out of action) cemented loyalty to the prescriptions of caste.Thus doctrine of transmigration of souls reinforced the caste system Ahimsa refers to the doctrine of nonviolence first emerged among the Jains before adoption by others in Indian society Meditation Hindus belief that one might omit endless rounds of lives filled in with human suffering through meditation (i. e. the mystical concentration of all psychic forces) The goal of Yogi meditation is the submergence of ones ego in the supreme whiz of Brahman. This is achieved through spiritual knowledge that all differences are illusions (or maya) & that all that really exists is the totality of Brahman, the Absolute Being BUDDHISM Has origins in religious reforms in Indian society in the 6th cent ury BCE.These reforms produced the spiritual teachers or gurus The gurus were later described as the naked philosophers (or the gymnosophists) because they walked naked in the rain and the sun to discipline the flesh Also fasted for long periods of time & engaged in exhausting exersices that developed into the sacred discipline of yoga dickens leading gurus were Mahavira (540-476 BCE) & Prince Siddartha or Gautama (563-483 BCE) Mahavira founded Jainism & Gautama founded Buddhism Gautama was given the title of Buddha (the Enlightened One) by his followers was born in the Himalayas, present day Nepal GAUTAMAS TEACHINGS He denied the existence of a soul taught that only matter existed (in opposition to commandment of Upanishads) Because matter was always in a state of flux, he recognized no Absolute Being or any fixed universal principle other than constant change Even gods were root to laws of growth & decay the universe is forever becoming He retained the concept of karma he beli eved that the root of suffering is desire (i. e. he pursuit of unattainable goals because the objects sought are fleeting & unreal) In this sense, he agreed with orthodox Hinduism that worldly things are an illusion or maya To reach Nivarna, one should recognize & winnow out worldly desires as blind follies cultivate unselfishness, compassion & honesty reject injury to others such as murder, theft & adultery choose a life that does not bring harm to other living things 500 years after Buddhism was founded, it split into two major divisions Hinayana School ( the Lesser Vehicle) and Mahayana School (the great Vehicle) HINAYANA SCHOOL So called because it emphasized individual salvation claimed that a diligent person could attain nivarna in three lifetimes Bodhisattva ensuant incarnations of the Buddha Denied existence of a soul does not recognize the founder of Buddhism as a god. However, prayers, gifts of flowers & incense may be offered to his image Found in Sri Lanka, Burma (My anmar), Thailand, Cambodia & Laos MAHAYANA SCHOOLMahayana sets as its goal the salvation of the entire human race worships Buddha as a god The concept of Bodhisattva represents the Buddha-elect, an individual who has won enlightenment but chooses to remain in the world for the liberation of others agreeing to suffer as ransom for all human beings Everyone is potentially a Bodhisattva & may become a Buddha. It embodied as cardinal virtues love, piety, joy & peace of mind Mahayana Buddhism found in China, Tibet, Mongolia, Nepal & Japan, but it disappeared in India in later centuries JAINISM Founded by Mahavira it is contemporary with & in many respects parallel to Buddhism. Mahavira broke radically with traditional religions, rejected both their deities and their scriptures Doctrines of JainismTo Mahavira, the material universe is real, but it is filled with an infinite number of souls lodged in living creatures & inanimate things Rejected the concept of an overriding World Soul & taught that individual souls are held in bondage by matter this bondage is perpetuated through successive births by operation of karma Because every action produces karma and karma adds weight to the chains of bondage, the only route to escape is to avoid action altogether thus nivarna represents a place of absolute passivity Mahavira prescribed a administration of extreme asceticism, ideally culminating in death through self-starvation. Despite its atheistic tendencies, Jainism did resemble a professedly religion with prayers, holy scriptures and gods. Today, there are about 2 million Jains in southern and western India Prominent in Jain faith is the doctrine of ahimsa or non-injury to living things it imposes taboos against slaughter of not only of animals but even insects. Ahimsa contributed ethical support to the ideal of pacifism Since Jainism ruled out the practice of agriculture, Jains turned to trade & money-lending, becoming some of the wealthiest in Indian society ACHIEV EMENTS OF THE VEDIC AGEMedicine dissection, delicate surgeries thorough knowledge of human anatomy study of embryology Knowledge of astronomy the first to suggest that the body politic revolves on its axis & that the earth rotates around the sun Mathematics were the first to extract square & block roots used the decimal system invented the principle of zero, eventually adopted by the rest of the world Arabic numbers in use today originated in India advances in algebra Literature Two heroic poems Mahabharata & Ramayana Mahabharata the longest poem in the world with over 10,000 verses. About the struggle between two powerful Indian clans, but gods were involved also Ramayana a romantic story of Prince Rama who rescues his lovely wife Sita fromRavana, the fanatic king of Ceylon Arthasastra a political commentary